The Role of Gender in Domestic Water Conservation in Malaysia
The Role of Gender in Domestic Water Conservation in Malaysia
Chan Ngai Weng
Visiting Professor
SEA-UEM Project, School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 4, Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120 Thailand
{email 1 nwchan@ait.ac.th}
_________________________________________________________________________________________
While the role of gender in water management is vital in many countries experiencing water scarcity, such as in the African continent and Indian Sub-continent, it is rather undefined in the case of Malaysia. This is strange considering the escalation of water problems in the country in recent decades due to climate change and social, political and economic reasons. Though the country is rich in water resources, mismanagement causes water supply to lag far behind water demand. As a result, Malaysia is facing water problems which have severe impacts, particularly on gender. This paper demonstrates that women are the main water managers both at home and in the office, and they wield tremendous influence on the ways families and businesses use and conserve water. Increasing water problems has necessitated the need for consumers, especially women, to play a more active role in water conservation, notably via domestic water audit and other water demand management (WDM) tools. The role of women is pivotal in curbing domestic wastage, but ensuring wise use and conservation. Since domestic consumers use roughly more than half of the country’s total water demand, WDM is a vital conservation tool. Women are the managers of the family’s water budget. Because of the fact that women use water for most of the domestic chores in the home, they are considered vitally important in water conservation. Women also make decision on the installation of water saving devices. When women save water in the home, they also educate their children and family members about the importance of water conservation. Finally, women themselves need to cut down on water use via substitution of water-saving methods and other personal adjustments. Women who work can similarly exert their influence in the office by impressing upon colleagues and the employer about the benefits of water conservation. Overall, water conservation via involvement of the public can be effective when women are actively involved as they are the key players towards achieving sustainable management of water resources.
Keywords: Women in water, Water Demand Management, Water Saving, Domestic Water Audit
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Malaysia is considered rich in water resources with an annual average rainfall of about 3,000 mm generating 556 billion m3 of surface runoff and renewable water resources amounting to 120 billion m3 per year (or 5,400 m3 per capita) (Salmah Zakaria and Rafidah Kassim, 1999:24). Yet, despite the richness of water resources, the main focus on water management is heavily in favour of the top-down and technocentric approach, leaning heavily towards privatization (Chan and Nitivattananon, 2006a). This is futile as water resources are finite but water demand doubles on the average every 20 years or so. Since independence in 1957 until today, the predominant approach has been to build dams, treatment plants and main pipes to deliver water to the public. Very little effort has been centred on teaching water consumers (industry, business and domestic) to control their demands. As a result, there is a lot of wastage and “unwise” use of water, very little recycling, and a galloping demand scenario (Jamaluddin Aziz and Chan, 2006). More tragically, the important role played by women in managing water within the family as well as within the community, which has been highlighted by many (Hajar et al., 2002; Chan and Vilas, 2006a) has not been recognized and put into good use.
Chan (2004) has demonstrated that Water Supply Management (WSM) from the top cannot work in the modern scenario of population explosion and rapid industrial development, but has to give way to a more comprehensive strategy employing both WSM and WDM. Until now, a large pool of stakeholders, viz. the consumers have not been factored into the equation. Without their support and cooperation, water demand continues to escalate resulting in many states facing water shortages. The public can determine the success or failure of water management as they are domestic water users who consume roughly more than half of the country’s total water demand. Because of this huge volume, any reduction in consumption can save the country a lot of water (Chan and Nitivattananon, 2006b). In terms of public participation, it is imperative that women, as individuals, are allowed to play a more active role as they are the “managers” (albeit unpaid ones) at home. Women are usually the ones who manage the family’s water budget. Because of the fact that women use water for most of the domestic chores in the home, they are considered vitally important in water conservation. When women save water in the home, they also educate their children and family members about the importance of water conservation. Finally, many women are teachers and they can contribute immensely towards the education of our young in the ultimate creation of a water saving society in Malaysia (Chan and Nitivattananon, 2006c). Finally, even if women fall short of their important role to disseminate the water conservation message, the future of water resources management in the country would still be secured if the majority of women do their part and practise water conservation. This is because women make up about half the population. In terms of educational level, it is noted that females accounted for 67 % of places in pre-university level and 63.4 % of places in tertiary/university level (Government of Malaysia, 2006). Given this scenario, the future certainly bodes well for women as they will be more and more influential in decisions regarding the family, including water conservation.
Cross Cutting Role of Gender in Water Management
The role of gender in development in a multitude of areas is recognised world-wide, ever since the global women’s movement (Antrobus, 2004). In the area of water, Hajar et al. (2002) illustrates succinctly how women in the older generation have used water wisely. In many parts of the world, notably India and Africa, only a third of the rural population and two-thirds of the urban population have access to piped water. Those who do not are forced to seek water from far away untreated sources and women bear the brunt of this struggle to get water. Women often walk up to 15 kilometers to fetch water everyday. Based on such a scenario, a girl aged 14 years fetching water for the first time and doing it every day, would have walked round the earth (around the Equator) when she reaches the age of 21 years 4 months. The story of grassroots women organizations in successfully managing water resources where authorities have failed in India is heartening (Panda, 2007). Women, of course, need water more than men as they tend to weigh less and have lower percentages of total body water than men. Women also need to use more water for washing, cooking and managing the hygiene of the home (SEWA, 2003).
In the global arena, the Women for Water Partnership (WfWfW), launched and registered at the 12th session of the UN Commission on Sustainable Development in April 2004, highlights the many important roles of women in water (http://www.womenforwater.org/ 19/10/06). Many researchers have found that that the role of women in Water Supply and Sanitation (WSS) has gained salience and importance, especially after the declaration of the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade and the Fourth World Conference for Women at Beijing (Fong et. al., 1996). Increasingly, women are now widely recognized as having a crucial role to play in the water and sanitation sector. However, the reality is that on the global arena, gender equality is more lip service than action. What is important is for water managers to show why attention to gender is important and how much attention can be ensured in any project. Water managers (including governments) need to be convinced of the rationale for considering gender issues in water and sanitation. Often, this can be achieved by profitability and sustainability. Fong et al (1996) provide ten salient lessons learned from experience in the WSS sector around the world as proofs that gender inclusion is viable and effective. They further document what has and has not worked as well as problems encountered and solutions found. They also provide many examples of good practices by country in detail, especially of international bank supported projects in the WSS sector that have utilized effective gender strategies.
Experience from ADB and around the world has shown that focus on gender brings multiplier effects. Inclusion of gender inputs into projects leads to benefits that go beyond good WSS project performance as manifested in such aspects as enhanced image, better procurement, O & M, recycling and cost recovery, and hygiene awareness. There may also be other benefits such as Economic benefits (For example, better access to water gives women more time for income-generating activities, the needs of family members, or their own welfare and leisure. The economy, as a whole, therefore also benefits); Benefit to children (For example, children, especially girls, can go to school without having to spend long hours fetching water. Girls can then improve their education and be better prepared for better jobs); and Empowerment of women (For example, involvement in WSS projects empowers women, especially when project activities are linked to income-generating activities, productive resources such as credit, and equipping women with better skills) (http://www.adb.org/Documents/Manuals/Gender_Checklists/Water/water200.asp 9 Aug 2006).
The role of women in decision-making has also been recognised in the 1992 Earth Summit Agenda 21 as well as subsequent international conference agreements, including the comprehensive 1995 Women's Conference Platform for Action, Third World Water Forum 2003 (Kyoto) and Fourth World Water Forum 2006 (Mexico). In these forums, governments have largely agreed on the need for gender analysis to reflect the differential impact that policies and programs have on both women and men. However, the reality is that most of these are mere rhetoric, including the "mainstreaming a gender perspective into policy-making" and acceptance of women as equal partners in decision-making relating to the water sector. As such, much remains to be achieved in terms of gender-equity in the water sector. Currently, there is much disparity between the ways in which men and women use and control water. Traditionally, in Asian societies, women are responsible for managing water in the home because of gender-based roles that assign women responsibility for household care. Gender perspectives on water management have become important (Kusakabe 2005). Water is a vital resource crucial for survival. But as the world runs “dry”, water has become a scarce resource, even nicknamed “blue gold”. Within this scenario, water is being fought over and conflicting use compete against one another – for example there are conflicts between industry and agriculture, industry and domestic use, environmental flows and water supply abstraction, ecosystem health and development opportunities, etc. Within all these conflicts somewhere is women. Notwithstanding their vulnerability to water hazards, governments must take into account women's expertise and experience in the water sector to ensure environmentally sound water policies and programs. Certainly, history has shown the value of women's holistic approach in contributing towards creating sustainable communities (Chan and Nitivattananon, 2006a).
Women Organisations and Water Conservation in Malaysia
In Malaysia, the role and status of women have improved significantly since independence in 1957. In the Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006-2010, an entire chapter (Chapter 13) has been allocated for women development (Government of Malaysia, 2006). During the Eight Malaysia Plan 2000-2005, women continued to advance in various fields of development, mostly because of equal access to education and training, health care and improved employment opportunities. The Ninth Malaysia Plan also confirmed that gender mainstreaming will be given emphasis and gender considerations included in the formulation of government policies and programmes. The Malaysian Government has set up a Cabinet Committee on Gender equality and there is now a Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development (KPWK) Malaysia to look after the interests of women in the country (http://www.ilo.org/pubcgi/links_ext.pl?http://www.kpwkm.gov.my/ 10 Aug 2006). Its minister is a lady. The objectives of this Ministry include promoting the interest of women and their participation in national development and to coordinate family development programmes. It implements the National Policy on Women and relevant Departments of the Ministry include the Departments of Women's Development, National Unity and the National Population and Family Development Board. However, it is rather unfortunate that there is no apparent link between women and water.
Women NGOs are also strong in Malaysia. The All Women's Action Society (AWAM) in Selangor State formed in 1988 (http://www.awam.netfirms.com/home.htm 10 Aug 2006) is an independent feminist organisation committed to improving the lives of women in Malaysia. Its vision is to create a just and equitable society where women are treated with respect, and free from all forms of violence and discrimination, but it does not deal with water issues. The Asian-Pacific Resources and Research Centre for Women (ARROW) in Kuala Lumpur, established in 1993 is a regional NGO and NPO organization (http://www.arrow.org.my/ 10 Aug 2006). Its goal is for women in Asia and the Pacific to be better able to define and control their lives, particularly in the area of women's health and women's rights. Unfortunately, none of their key areas of concern regarding women touches on water. In Kota Bharu, the Murni Women's Development Foundation of Kelantan (YAYASAN MURNI) objectives are mostly to provide assistance to women in need paying special emphasis to socially underprivileged women, single mothers, widows and victims of violence and their family members. (http://www.newwomen.net/networkingwomen/yayasanmurni 10 Aug 2006). It does not get involved in water issues. The National Council of Women's Organizations, Malaysia (NCWO) is the main Women's NGO Consultative Coordinating Council and has 61 Affiliates the portfolios of which cover the social, political, economic, religious, professional and trade union sectors but is by and by its constitution non-racial, non-religious, non-political (http://www.ncwo.org.my/ 10 Aug 2006). The NWCO promotes and enhances women's participation and contribution in all sectors of national development. Hence, the NWCO appears a potentially suitable candidate for gender and water issues in the country. However, hitherto, it does not deal with water.
Hence, despite the abundance of women organizations in Malaysia, all actively pursuing the interests and role of women, none of them has a focus on gender and water issues. Hence, this is one aspect of women organizations in Malaysia that needs to be improved. As Malaysia is very concerned with poverty reduction and equality in income distribution, as well as gender equality, the inclusion of gender provides the platform for women participation and poverty reduction, two other key determinants of the effectiveness and sustainability of WSS management. Gender inclusion ties in very well with their national plans and policies. It is therefore strange to note that both countries have hitherto not embarked on a massive endeavour to include women and gender inputs into water projects in a more institutionalized way. Most current projects with gender inputs are largely ad hoc. If a water project allows women participation, and includes women right from the beginning in the areas of project design, construction, operation and maintenance (O & M), training, and monitoring and evaluation (M & E), as well as water conservation, then the results on poverty reduction and income re-distribution would materialize (Chan, 2006a).
Domestic Water Management and Conservation
A research carried out by Chan (2006b) indicates that the role of women in domestic water management is of paramount importance. Out of 100 households surveyed in Pattaya, 56 % of households reported that the mother was the main water manager in the home compared to 36 % for the father. In the same study in a survey of 111 households in Georgetown, 61.3 % of households indicated that the mother was the main water manager in the home as compared to 19.8 % for the father. In Pattaya, when water supply breaks down, 80.0 % of the time it is the mother who has to go out of the house to fetch water (either buy bottled water, fetch water in plastic bottles from public taps/water tankers or from relative houses, or from a nearby well/river). Only 20.0 % of fathers did the fetching. In the case of Georgetown, when water supply breaks down, 77.8 % of the time it is the mother’s job to fetch water from outside the house, the remaining 22.2 % of the time being carried out by the son or daughter. None of the households reported that the fathers ever did any water fetching. This may have been due to the fact that most men are bread-winners of the homes and are most likely working in the office. Nevertheless, these results clearly show that the role of women, especially mothers, is vital in managing water in the home, both in Pattaya and in Georgetown. Interestingly, it was also noted that households with female heads were likely to adopt more water conservation measures than those headed by men. However, in terms of total monthly water use as well as per capita water use in the home, there was no significant difference between households who had women or men as water managers. Overall, when combined, all households in both cities used on average 34.9 m3/household/month. However, households in Georgetown use substantially more water (40.0 m3/household/month) than households in Pattaya (29.6 m3/household/month). Table 1 gives an indication of water problems in Georgetown and Pattaya, with the former performing better than the later.
Table 1: Comparison of Household Water Indicators in Georgetown and Pattaya, 2006
Indicator Georgetown Pattaya
Area 119 km2 208 km2
Population 400,000 (Include Suburbs) 111,543 (Include Suburbs)
Number of Households Interviewed 111 100
Average Monthly Usage of Water 40.0 m3/Household/Month 29.6 m3/Household/Month
% households with mothers as main water manager 61.3 % 56.0 %
% households with fathers as main water manager 19.8 % 36.0 %
% households with others as main water manager 18.9 % 8.0 %
% households with father fetching water 0.0 % 20.0 %
% households with mother fetching water 77.8 % 80.0 %
% households with others fetching water 22.2 % 0.0 %
Water use per household with father as water manager 32.7 m3 (Two cities Combined)
Water use per household with mother as water manager 32.6 m3 (Two cities Combined)
% Households With water Problems 64.9 % 82.0 %
% Households reporting bad water quality 27.0 % 23.0 %
% Households reporting 3 or more water problems 28.0 % 49.0 %
% Households reporting frequent water cuts 11.7 % 13.0 %
% Households reporting low water pressure 25.2 % 64.0 %
% Households reporting foul smell and odour in water 14.4 % 27.0 %
% Households reporting colour in water 30.6 % 28.0 %
% Households reporting excessive impurities in water 15.3 % 34.0 %
% Households reporting high chlorine content in water 14.4 % 16.0 %
% Households reporting unsatisfactory taste of water 8.1 % 4.0 %
% Households reporting excessive hardness of water 1.8 % 6.0 %
% Households reporting other problems with their water 0.9 % 30.0 %
% Households using bottled water as main source 22.5 % 64.0 %
There is no doubt that women can play a very vital role in the sustainable management of water. Chan and Nitivattananon (2006a) show that one area that women can contribute significantly would be to reduce domestic water consumption via education of family members, teaching school children, and auditing of the household water budget. Domestic Water Audit (DWA) refers to calculating the amount of water that a household uses. This includes water use for indoor water usage such as laundry, in the kitchen, for bathing, for flushing toilets, and other chores as well as outdoor water usage such as watering gardens and lawns, washing tiled/cemented floors, paths and driveways, washing cars, and other installations. All these water usage are in the control of women managers of the home. Based on a study on domestic water audit, selection of the type of washing machine and pattern of usage will determine the amount of water use. A water efficient washing machine will use only 45 litres per wash (3 kgs of clothes) whereas a large Automatic Washing machine will use 120 litres, i.e. 2.7 times the amount of water. When a washing machine is half-full, using the “half-full” function will additionally save half of water per wash. This may seem insignificant but if one adds up the number of washes per year, the amount of water and money saved is huge.
Table 2 illustrates how Mrs. Chan from Penang (Malaysia) managed to save water by using a water efficient washing machine (Chan and Vilas, 2006a). It should be pointed out that the water savings is only from one activity, i.e. washing clothes. If we consider water savings from other activities as well, it would be much more. However, because of the low water tariffs in Malaysia (average 50 sen per 1000 litres), the amount of money saved is very small. Hence, one cannot look at water savings in terms of money in Malaysia. In order for water saving to be effective, one has to educate the public, especially women who have to be aware and sensitized towards water conservation.
Table 2: Amount of water saved using a Twin-Tub Washing machine over a Large Automatic Washing Machine, and the amount saved using the half-full function.
A B C D E
Water Efficient Type 45 1,350 - - -
Medium Efficient Type 90 2,700 1,350 16,200 RM8.10*
Normal Non-Efficient Type 105 3,150 1,800 21,600 RM10.80
Large Auto Non-Efficient Type 120 3,600 2,250 27,000 RM13.50
*RM = Ringgit (RM1 = US$0.27)
A= Water use per wash of 3kg; B= Water use per month; C=Water saved per month using water efficient machine; D=Water saved per year using water efficient machine; E=Money saved per year using water efficient machine
Mrs. Chan also practices wise-dishwashing via using two half-full sinks (one sink for washing with dishwashing liquid and the other for rinsing). This has proven to be able to save a large amount of water. Table 3 illustrates show Mrs. Chan saved between 30 to 120 litres of water a day by her dishwashing method compared to other dishwashing methods that use more water. Using a dishwasher is definitely not advisable as it uses too much water, even for water-efficient types. A large amount of water can also be saved in the bathroom. Women can control and audit not only their own bath/shower water usage but also their children and husband. Table 4 illustrates the huge amount of water that has been saved (between 12 to 370 litres per day) in Mrs. Chan’s house in bathing/showering alone. Again, it is noted that the amount of money saved may be minimal due to the low water tariffs. Another area that the lady of the house can control to reduce water use is the toilet. Selecting the type of toilet flush and controlling the amount of flushes can be vital in saving a lot of water. Table 5 indicates the huge amount of water saved with a water efficient dual-flush system compared to a conventional single-flush system. Mrs. Chan puts two pieces of bricks into the cistern of one of her WCs, effectively reducing the volume of water flushed from 9 litres to 4.5 litres. She has designated this WC “For Urinating Only”. For defecating, her family members have to use the other toilet which has a normal flush of 9 litres.
Table 3: Amount of water saved using half-full sinks over using a dishwasher or full sinks for dishwashing.
x-Depth of water in sink
A-Water Used Per Wash (Litres)
B-Water Used Per Day (Average 3 Washes)
C-Water Saved Per Day Using 2 Half-full Sinks (Average 3 Washes)
D-Water Saved Per Month Using 2 Half-full Sinks (Average 3 Washes/Day)
E-Water Saved Per Year Using 2 Half-full Sinks (Average 3 Washes/Day)
F-Money Saved Per Year (Based on average of 50 sen per 1000 litres)
X A B C D E F
2 Half-Full Sinks 20 60 - - - -
2 3/4 Full Sinks 30 90 30 900 10,800 RM5.40
2 Full Sinks 40 120 60 1,800 21,600 RM10.80
1 Efficient Dishwasher 40 120 60 1,800 21,600 RM10.80
1 Normal Dishwasher 60 180 120 3,600 43,200 RM21.60
Table 4: Amount of water saved with a water-efficient shower within 3 minutes compared to conventional showerheads and longer shower times or bathing with the long bath.
X-Type of Shower or Bath
A-Water Used Per Shower (Based on Conventional Showerhead of 7 Litres Per Minute)
B-Water Used Per Day (Average 2 Showers or Baths)
C-Water Saved Per Day Using 3 Minute Water Efficient Shower (Average 2 Showers Per Day)
D-Water Saved Per Month Using 3 Minute Water Efficient Shower (Average 2 Showers Per Day)
E-Water Saved Per Year Using 3 Minute Water Efficient Shower (Average 2 Showers Per Day)
F-Money Saved Per Year (Based on average of 50 sen per 1000 litres)
X A B C D E F
3 Minute Shower 21 42 12 360 4,320 RM2.16
5 Minute Shower 35 70 40 1,200 36,000 RM18.00
10 Minute Shower 70 140 110 3,300 39,600 RM19.80
20 Minute Shower 140 280 250 7,500 90,000 RM45.00
Long Bath 200 400 370 11,100 133,200 RM66.60
3 Minute Efficient Shower 15 30 - - - -
Table 5: Amount of water saved with a water-efficient dual-flush system compared to a conventional single-flush system.
x-Type of Flush System
A-Water Used Per Flush
B-Water Used Per Flush (Based on 5 persons per house X 7 flushes per person per day)
C-Water Saved Per Day Using Dual-Flush System (Based on 5 persons per house X 7 flushes per person per day)
D-Water Saved Per Month Using Dual-Flush System (Based on 5 persons per house X 7 flushes per person per day)
E-Water Saved Per Year Using Dual-Flush System (Based on 5 persons per house X 7 flushes per person per day)
F-Money Saved Per Year (Based on average of 50 sen/ 1000 litres)
X A B C D E F
Large Single-Flush (11 litres) 11 385 227.5 6,825 81,900 RM40.95
Normal Single-Flush (9 litres) 9 315 157.5 4,725 56,700 RM28.35
Efficient Single-Flush(7 litres) 7 245 87.5 2,625 31,500 RM15.75
Dual-Flush (6/3 litres) 4.5 157.5 - - - -
Under the DWA, the water usage of outdoor areas is also important to calculate and control. Watering gardens and lawns, especially during hot days where evaporation can be high, can lead to a lot of water being used. Washing paved areas such as driveways, tiled areas and cemented areas as well as cars also consumes a lot of water if a running hose is used. Table 6 gives an indication as to the amount of water that can merely by changing the pattern/type of washing by using a few buckets of water instead of a running hose. In Mrs. Chan’s case, she controls water use by switching to a bucket and mop for washing floors, and Mr. Chan uses a bucket and a piece of cloth/sponge for washing cars. A bucket should also be used in watering plants as using the hose may lead to a lot of wastage as some of the water may miss the plants’ pots. Water sprinklers that are set on an automatic mode should not be used as they not only use an enormous amount of water but also go off during thunderstorms when watering is unnecessary. Needless to say, having a swimming pool, even a small one, at home is a big user of water. Often, as it is the rich people who can only afford a pool, they do not have the time to use it. Hence, more often than not, swimming pools are unnecessary.
Table 6: Water saved with a bucket of water for washing compared to a running hose.
X-Type of Washing System
A-Water Used Per Car Wash Per Day
B-Water Used Per 2 Car Washes Per Day Flush (Based on average of 2 cars per house)
C-Water Saved Per Day Using Bucket System (Based on average 2 cars per house)
D-Water Saved Per Month Using Bucket System (Based on average 2 cars per house)
E-Water Saved Per Year Using Bucket System (Based on average 2 cars per house)
F-Money Saved Per Year (Based on average of 50 sen per 1000 litres)
X A B C D E F
2 Buckets of water (10 litres each) 20 40 - - - -
A normal running hose (10 litres/minute) 50 100 60 1,800 21,600 RM10.80
A high pressure running hose (15 lit/min) 75 150 110 3,300 39,600 RM19.80
A low pressure running hose (7 lit/min) 35 70 30 900 10,800 RM5.40
If we add up all the water saved from the above DWA activity, it would be substantial. Table 7 indicates that Mrs. Chan was able to save between 161,100 and 324,900 litres per year by merely using the DWA. The total amount of water saved in just this one house was a maximum of 324,900 litres. This is equivalent to the average usage of 3,249 persons in India for a day. In terms of money, the amount saved via all these activities would be RM162.40. If we can convince all households (via women) to cooperate and carry out their DWA in each household across the country, the total water savings would be 5,000,000 households X 324,900 litres = 1,624.5 billion litres of water saved. This amount of water is equivalent to about 77 Teluk Bahang dams (21,000 million litres capacity) in Penang. In terms of monetary savings, the country would have saved RM162.40 X 5,000,000 households = RM812 million. This amount of money will certainly be very useful in addressing the other water problems in the country such as the high percentage of non-revenue water (i.e. replacing old pipes that are prone to breakage), upgrading water treatment plants, maintenance of existing dams, educating the public on awareness and other important water related projects. More importantly, making people reduce water use means that the building of dams can be postponed to the distant future, i.e. these future dams reserved for future generations. This will ensure that our water resources remain sustainable instead of being depleted.
Table 7: Total Amount of water saved per year via adding up the water saving measures.
X-Type of Water Saving Measure
A-Water Saved based on worse case scenario (Comparing Most Efficient System to Least Efficient System)
B-Water Saved based on comparing Most Efficient System to Moderate Efficient System
C-Water Saved based on comparing Most Efficient System to Low Efficient System
D-Money Saved based on worse case scenario (Comparing Most Efficient System to Least Efficient System)
E-Money Saved based on comparing Most Efficient System to Moderate Efficient System
F-Money Saved based on comparing Most Efficient System to Low Efficient System
X A B C D E F
Washing Machine 27,000 16,200 21,600 RM13.50 RM8.10 RM10.80
Dishwashing 43,200 10,800 21,600 RM21.60 RM5.40 RM10.80
Showering 133,200 36,000 39,600 RM66.60 RM18.00 RM19.80
Toilet Flushing 81,900 31,500 56,700 RM40.95 RM15.75 RM28.35
Watering Garden & Lawns 39,600 10,800 21,600 RM19.80 RM5.40 RM10.80
TOTAL 324,900 105,300 161,100 RM162.40 RM52.65 RM80.55
If mobilized throughout the country in a national water saving campaign, the influence of women on water conservation can be phenomenal. Considering per capita water use, Malaysia exhibit high rates, i.e. about 310 litres (http://www.seawun.org/benchmarking/ 17 may 2006). If the UN recommended usage of 165 litres per capita per day is applied, then Malaysians are wasting 145 litres per capita per day. In urban areas, particularly large cities such as Kuala Lumpur and Georgetown, the per capita usage are much higher averaging above 500 litres per capita. Hence, the urban wastage is about 335 litres per capita. If we multiply the wastage figures by the country’s population of 26 million, the wastage will be 8.71 billion litres of water per day. Such a high level of water wastage is certainly not sustainable. Women can contribute effectively towards reducing this wastage via conservation and education via the following ways. Say if each woman manager of a home manages to reduce 10 % of their water use per day, 31 litres of water is saved per person per day. For the entire country, this is equivalent to 806 million litres per day. Annually, the amount of water savings is about 294,190 million litres, i.e. equivalent to about 14 mid-sized dams. If the water demand reduction is reduced to 20 %, the water saved would be able to fill 28 mid-sized dams. Also, besides reducing water use, women in rural areas are the ones who have to fetch water from wells or rivers. Here, they act as the primary means of sourcing alternative sources of water and reduce dependence on piped water.
In the area of education, mothers can mould their children into responsible water saving adults by starting them young. They can take their children for outings to rivers instead of to supermarkets or shopping complexes. They can lead the children in "River Walk" along the banks of rivers such as the Sg Air Terjun inside the Botanical Gardens. Mothers can request help from WWP experts who will brief the children on the importance of water conservation and hence the need to keep rivers clean. The children can then be treated to some basic water monitoring exercises whereby they would go into the shallow river to conduct themselves. Many women are school teachers and this is an area where water education becomes important. Women teachers can teach students to conserve water the way they teach their own children. In many developed countries, schools have “River Watch” programmes whereby school children monitor the “health” of an adopted river (usually one that is adjacent to their school). This way, they can report any major changes in water quality of rivers due to dumping of toxic materials, rubbish, oil spill or otherwise. In Penang, one of WWP’s activities is the continuous education programme to instill awareness and love for our rivers. The objective is to get one school to adopt a river or part/section of a river and monitor the "Health" of the river via simple indicators. Because participants actually get into the river to perform various tasks, they really enjoyed themselves. Hence there is tremendous potential for women teachers to take advantage of this interesting water education activity. Children need to get out into the field to learn about rivers (Chan et al., 2003). Women control the water budget in the house as they are engaged in watering of plants/vegetables, wash floors and toilets, and other chores needing water. Hence, women can either save or waste water. There may be many other areas in which women can play an important role in water saving. Since the Government is now preaching the use of Water Demand Management (WDM) to complement Water Supply Management (WSM) that has been largely employed by Government so far, WDM in the household will determine whether WDM succeeds or fails. This is because more than half the water demand is from domestic households. Hence, the family unit holds the key to WDM (Chan and Nitivattananon, 2006c).
Conclusion
Malaysia is a country where women are given equal opportunities to excel in all arenas. This has resulted in a proliferation of women organizations championing for all sorts of issues except water. This is strange considering the fact that women probably work closer to water than men, and are usually the water managers at home. In recent decades the country has been affected by mounting water problems, as there is inefficient use and high wastage. This paper has demonstrated that women can effectively reduce water demands in the home. Hence, there is a vital role for women to play, especially in managing and reducing domestic water use. Via WDM, a non-technological tool, women can help curb domestic wastage, ensuring wise use and conservation of water. In the domestic area, women can play a vital role as they are the “water managers” at home. Women such as Mrs. Chan can use Domestic Water Audit effectively to audit their household water use, and make adjustments to the water use pattern to reduce demand. Significant savings, both in terms of the volume of water and money can be saved. As women use water for most of the domestic chores in the home, they are effective water conservation agents in the home. When women save water in the home, they also educate their children, family members, neighbours and friends about the importance of water conservation. Women can also cut down on water use via substitution of water-saving equipment and methods, and other personal adjustments. A sustained national WDM initiative whereby women are the key players towards achieving sustainable management of water resources is needed. As domestic water consumption is about half of the country’s total water demand, the reduction of domestic water demand would be vital in achieving water sustainability. When every family cooperates, led by women, the reduction in consumption can save the country a lot of water and postponed the building of dams which can be saved for future generations.
Acknowledgements: The author would like to express his thanks to the CIDA-AIT Partnership 2003-2008 Southeast Asia Urban Environmental Management Applications Project, and the Urban Environmental Management, School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology, for funding and administrative support in the project from which this paper is produced.
Bibliography
Antrobus, P. (2004) The Global Women’s Movement: Origins, Issues and Challenges. London: Zed Books.
Chan N W (2004) Managing Water Resources in the 21st Century: Involving All Stakeholders Towards Sustainable Water Resources Management in Malaysia. Bangi: Environmental Management Programme, Centre for Graduate Studies, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Chan N W (2006a) River catchment Awareness and Monitoring Programme for Pinang River, Penang State, Malaysia: Role of Water Watch Penang, Private Sector and Local Community. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on Community Activities for the Conservation of Water Environment – Lessons Learnt from Community Activities. Tokyo: Ministry of the Environment, Japan, 48-51.
Chan N W (2006b) Water Resource Management in Malaysia and Thailand. In UEM Newsletter, Asian Institute of Technology, Vol. 7, Issue 3, December 2006, 3.
Chan N W, Hajar Abdul Rahim, Khor H T and Baharulnizam Baharum (Editors) 2003 Learning About Water – Training Manual. Penang: Water Watch Penang.
Chan N W and Nitivattananon V. (2006a) “Women’s Role in water Conservation in Malaysia.” Proceedings of Regional Conference on Urban Water and Sanitation in Southeast Asian Countries, Vientianne, Lao PDR, 22-24 November 2006. Pathumthani: Asian Institute of Technology, 323-335.
Chan N W and Nitivattananon V. (2006b) “Water demand management for sustainable water resources management in Malaysia.” Proceedings of International Conference on Environment (ICENV 2006): Knowledge-based Environmental Management and Sustainable Development, Penang, 13-15 November 2006. Penang: Universiti Sains Malaysia. Published in CD Rom (ISBN 983-3391-54-0)
Chan N W and Nitivattananon V (2006c) Gender Perspectives in Water Demand Management: Examples from Malaysia and Thailand. In Jamaluddin Md. Jahi, Kadir Arifin, Azahan Awang and Muhammad Rizal Razman (Editors) Managing Changes. Proceedings 3rd Bangi World Conference On Environmental Management, 5-6 September 2006, Bangi, Malaysia. Bangi: Environmental Management Programme, Centre For Graduate Studies, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia and Environmental Management Society (EMS) of Malaysia, 200-220.
Fong, Monica S.; Wakeman, Wendy; Bhushan, Anjana (1996) Gender Toolkit Series No. 2. Geneva: World Bank.
Government of Malaysia (2006) Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006 – 2010. Kuala Lumpur: Government of Malaysia.
Hajar Abdul Rahim, Radiah Yusoff, Noraini Ismail and Chan, N W (2002) “The Role of Women in Water Conservation in Malaysia”. In Ramlan Omar, Zulfahmi Ali Rahman, Mohd Talib Latif, Tukimat Lihan and Jumaat Hj. Adam (Eds) Proceedings of the International Conference “Regional Symposium on Environment & Natural Resources: Utilization, Management & Sustainable Development of the Environment and Natural Resources”, Kuala Lumpur, 10-11 April 2002. Bangi: School of Environmental Science and Natural Resources UKM, 161-170.
Jamaluddin Aziz and Chan N W (2006) “Water Watch Penang and Community Participation in Water Resource Management in Penang, Malaysia.” Proceedings of Regional Conference on Urban Water and Sanitation in Southeast Asian Countries, Vientianne, Lao PDR, 22-24 November 2006. Pathumthani: Asian Institute of Technology, 291-302.
http://www.womenforwater.org/ 19/10/06
http://www.adb.org/Documents/Manuals/Gender_Checklists/Water/water200.asp 9 Aug 2006
http://www.arrow.org.my/ 10 Aug 2006
http://www.awam.netfirms.com/home.htm 10 Aug 2006
http://www.ilo.org/pubcgi/links_ext.pl?http://www.kpwkm.gov.my/ 10 Aug 2006
http://www.ncwo.org.my/ 10 Aug 2006
http://www.newwomen.net/networkingwomen/yayasanmurni 10 Aug 2006
http://www.seawun.org/benchmarking/ 17 may 2006
Kusakabe K (2005) “Gender situation in Urban Environmental Management in the sub-region”. Paper presented at the Sub-regional dissemination meeting on gender equality in UEM, 6 December 2005, Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia.
Panda, S M (2007) Negotiation Processes in Institutionalising Grassroots Level Water Governance: Case of Self Employed Women’s Association, Gujarat, India. In Proceedings of International Forum on Water Environment Governance in Asia – Technologies and Institutional Systems for Water Environmental Governance, Ministry of Environment, Japan, Tokyo, 39-45.
Salmah Zakaria and Rafidah Kassim (1999) Issues and Challenges in Integrated River Basin Management. In Sustainable Management of Water Resources in Malaysia: A Review of Practical Options. Kuala Lumpur: Global Environment Centre, 25-30.
SEWA (2003) Women’s Struggle For Water. Ahmedabad: Self Employed Women Association (SEWA).
Note: This paper was submitted to Malaysian Journal of Environmental Management on 18 March 2007. It is pending publication.